The History of Weapons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The History of Weapons - Essay Example History have been developed in to what it is today by these weapon of annihilation. These weapons have eternally changed our world. Technological and scientific development has contributed to the development of all new advanced weapons. In the course of history, weapons have played a crucial role in the transformation and changing of society. Weapons were cause of destruction of civilization and also creation of new ones. The evolution of multifarious weapons describes the development of technology implemented by ancestors over the course of history. The main intension of development of weapons was to make it as powerful as possible to capture lands and enslave other people. This essay will discuss about the history of weapons. During ancient days, Egypt was at its peak but was invaded by the Hyksos by their superior weapons which were made of iron. These innovation and tactical brilliance at that point of time amazed the Egyptians. Earlier days, people used to use weapons to protect themselves and hunt for food. But mostly weapons were used to fight against each other for land, religion and power. Earlier days weapons were simple such as rocks and sharp sticks. Fighting was mainly between the throwing distances of enemy. But gradually weapons were developed in to more destructive and efficient. Guns were used in this century.String of the gun was wet through in saltpeter and then slow match was touched to the gunpowder so that it could ignite. The Wheelock was invented in early 16th century. Gunpowder is ignited by spark which is generated by a metal wheel that spun against an iron pyrites. Because of this most of the cavalry stopped using lances. Instead of lances they used to carry three or four pistol each. But the traditional English weapon used to be a longbow (O’Bryan, 2013). Longbow was around before it was used by the English. But it was never used as efficiently it was used by the English. At that time, most bows

Yellow Fever Epidemic Essay Example for Free

Yellow Fever Epidemic Essay When Mattie Cook survived the Yellow Fever Epidemic that swept through Philadelphia in 1793, her whole life was changed. Both her character the circumstances of her life changed a lot. Also, her relationships and responsibilities have changed too. Before the epidemic, Mattie was just an average teenager with the same problems most teens had. But after the epidemic, Mattie’s life became very different. Before the yellow fever, Mattie lived with her Mother and her Grandfather. After the fever ended, Mattie lived with her mother, Nell, Eliza, Joseph, Robert, and William. Also, before mother got sick with yellow fever, she ran the coffeehouse, took care of Mattie, and woke up early to take care of chores. But after the epidemic, Mattie ran the coffeehouse in a partnership with Eliza, has too help take care of the children, and is the one who now gets up to take care of chores. She now has to take on a lot more responsibilities than before the epidemic. Mattie’s relationships also have changed. She now admits to herself now that she likes Nathaniel Benson. After the epidemic she and Nathaniel have both matured have a more easy and confident relationship. She now views Eliza, Joseph, Nell, Robert, and William like family and feels responsible for them. During the fever, Mattie’s character also changed a lot. She is now more grateful for all that she has and realizes how lucky she was to have survived. She has also matured, become more conservative and knows how to look after herself. Although Mattie is still grieving for Grandfather, Polly, and all of the other victims of the yellow fever, she is very grateful that her mother is safe and well. She is also grateful that Nell, Eliza, Robert, William, Joseph, and Nathaniel Benson have survived.

Rainbow Six :: essays papers

Rainbow Six The book starts with a prologue that introduces us to the one main character, John Clark, an ex-Navy SEAL, and two other characters, Alistair Stanley the executive commander of Rainbow Six, and Domingo (Ding) Chavez, the Captain of Team 2. There are two other insignificant character introduced, Clark's wife Sandy and his daughter Patsy, who is married to Ding. Patsy is pregnant. The other main character is Dmitriy Arkadeyevich Popov, he is an ex-KGB agent who is now working as a ^special consultant'. He will become very important later on in the book. Clark is the commander and in charge of starting a new European anti-terrorist group called Rainbow Six. Rainbow Six is split into two teams; Team 1 and Team 2. These teams are the best there is. They are based in Hereford, England, but any European country can call on them at any time. They run 3 miles in 20 minutes every morning at 6:00 am. Only one team will be on-call at a time. The team that is not on-call will be doing live fire practices. In the first 6 months of being in operation they are called on three times which is a lot for this type of thing. The first incident happens in a Swiss bank where terrorists have taken control. They also have hostages. Team 2 successfully takes them out, with only one hostage killed, but he is killed before they had gotten there. The first mission helps them organize themselves and fix a few holes in their planning. The second mission is in Germany. An international trader is taken hostage in his mansion/castle. This mission goes well too, thanks to the snipers. No hostage deaths, but all the terrorists are killed. After this mission is over they realize they should have a helicopter and pilot on the team, this is done. The last mission that they are called on in the book is in Spain, in a huge amusement park. Earlier on in the book we hear a conversation in a french high security jail, with the Jackal and his lawyer. The Jackal tells his lawyer he is sick of being in jail and to call his friends and they would know what to do. The terrorists at the amusement park are well prepared, but not well enough to take on the Rainbow Six team. They take 30 children hostage, and demand for the Jackal and several other prisoners release. One of the major things that goes awary for the terrorists is that the

The Bells: An Analysis

Some the literary elements that Poe uses in the bells are onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, repetition, and rhythm. Onomatopoeia which is the formation of word by imitation of a sound made or associated with its referent, it is used in line 3 with the phrase tinkle tinkle, tinkle. Alliteration is the commencement of two or more stressed syllables of a word group either with the same consonant sound or sound group, used in verse 2 lines 10 and 12 â€Å"frantic fire† and â€Å"desperate desire. Assonance is a resemblance of sounds, also called vowel rhyme, used in line 1 â€Å" sledges, bells. † Repetition is the act of repeating something, used in line 3 â€Å" tinkle, tinkle, tinkle. † Rhythm is the movement or procedure with uniform or patterned recurrence of a beat or accent, the rhythm of the bells is what makes it lyrical The Bells represents life and how it happens. In the first stanza silver bells are introduced. The silver bells make a tinkle sound w hich is the sound of a small bell. Therefore the silver bells represent youth and excitement. In the second stanza the golden bells represent wedding bells. These bells symbolize maturity and growing up but also represent one of the happiest times of someone’s life as they are getting married which is a joyful time and at this point of the poem the bells are no longer tinkling as they now are chiming. In Stanza 3 brazen bells are played, these bells are terrifying as they shriek and go higher, and higher. The bells represent what is coming forth as they clang clash and roar. The Brazen bells are not chiming they are loud and obnoxious. Stanza 4 has iron bells playing that make people shiver with affright. The iron bells symbolize death. They are played in the silence of the night and it is silent at funerals because people are mourning and hear the moaning and groaning of the bells. This is how the 4 stanzas symbolize a person’s life. They are young and excited then as they get older and get married they are happy then loud bells tell that tragedy is near and finally death overtakes all people.

Global Marketing Chapter 1 Notes

Chapter 1 Global marketing refers to marketing activities that take place across national borders and outside of the firm’s home country Involvement in global marketing does not mean that a firm must sell its products in every country or region of the world Coordination and integration of marketing strategy with an emphasis on standardization are central tenet of GM Evolution of the conceptDomestic marketing – International sales are incidental to marketing strategy Multidomestic marketing – unique strategy for each country market Global marketing – Focus now on standardization and global segments Local marketing – Standardization but with a focus on the needs of local customers â€Å"Glocal Marketing† reflects the need for balance between global marketing, with a focus on standardization, and local marketing, with its focus on adaptation to country differences GlobalizationGlobalization refers to the increased integration of the worldâ€℠¢s economies. Ongoing global technological innovation in marketing has direct effect on the efficiency and effectiveness of all business activities. Globalization reflects a business orientation based on the belief that the world is becoming more homogeneous and that distinctions between national markets are not only fading but, for some products, will eventually disappear. Forms of globalization: Globalization of markets vs. Globalization of production Drivers of Globalization Market factors – convergence of markets, diffusion of telecommunication & internet. Growing # of retailers are now showing great flexibility in their strategies for entering new geographic markets * Cost factors – avoiding cost inefficiencies and duplication of effort are two of the most powerful globalization drivers. Economies of scale refers to the reduction in per unit cost of production. Economies of scope refers to reduced cost per unit as the firm spreads its total costs over a large numb er of brands, product lines, or target markets. Environmental factors – government barriers have fallen dramatically in the last several years and this has further facilitated the globalization of markets and the activities of marketers within them. Rapid technological evolution is contributing to the process. * Competitive factors – to remain competitive, the marketer may have to be the first to do something or to be able to match or pre-empt competitor’s moves. Without a global network, a marketer may run the risk of seeing carefully researched ideas picked off by global players.Market presence may be necessary to execute global strategies and to prevent others from having undue advantage in unchallenged markets. The anti-globalization movement The globalization trend has drawn its fair share of critics over the years. Anti-globalists have expressed concerns about the impact of the trend on the poor, the environment, and on national sovereignty. Many anti-glob alization protests have turned violent in the past Opportunities and challenges in global marketingThe growth of global business activities offers increased opportunities. International activities can be crucial to a firm’s survival and growth. By transferring knowledge around the globe, an international firm can build and strengthen its competitive position. What is needed is an awareness of global developments, an understanding of their meaning, and a development of capabilities to adjust to change. Willing or unwilling, firms are becoming participants in global business affairs.

Free Essays on Networking

Voice over Internet Protocol(VoIP) By: Michael Johnson VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP) INTRODUCTION: In the eyes of most, all packets are created equal. One of the most active areas of telecommunications today is in the area of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). The logic behind this trend makes perfect sense. If we have invested heavily in an Internet Protocol (IP) network, why can’t we make full use of it? This is a question posed by many managers and Information Technology (IT) professionals in a wide range of businesses. Many businesses would prefer to have one network in and out of their business for reasons ranging from cost effectiveness to manageability. IP telephony offers a promise of consolidation. This will allow an enterprise to converge its traditional phone system and newer data network for greater efficiency. Arieh Dranger, president of neXTel Systems LLC says, â€Å"I don’t think it’s a question of whether we need VoIP, but when it will come together, because it represents a natural progress o f integrating data- period. The IP protocol is probably the most efficient at combining a universal communications network.† Basically, IP telephony is taking the telecom world by storm. It has evolved from a little known and used application in 1995 to an application that is poised for global adoption. But as with all technology, there is a price to be paid, and several entities vying for a piece of the pie. WHAT IS VoIP and HOW DOES IT WORK? To put it simply, VoIP means Voice over Internet Protocol. It’s a technology that allows network managers to route phone call over the network they use for data transmission. A voice travels over a corporate Intranet or the Internet instead of the public telephone system. Special gateways installed at both the sending and receiving end of a communications channel converts voice to IP packets and back again to voice. This process must take place in a time frame of less than... Free Essays on Networking Free Essays on Networking Voice over Internet Protocol(VoIP) By: Michael Johnson VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP) INTRODUCTION: In the eyes of most, all packets are created equal. One of the most active areas of telecommunications today is in the area of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). The logic behind this trend makes perfect sense. If we have invested heavily in an Internet Protocol (IP) network, why can’t we make full use of it? This is a question posed by many managers and Information Technology (IT) professionals in a wide range of businesses. Many businesses would prefer to have one network in and out of their business for reasons ranging from cost effectiveness to manageability. IP telephony offers a promise of consolidation. This will allow an enterprise to converge its traditional phone system and newer data network for greater efficiency. Arieh Dranger, president of neXTel Systems LLC says, â€Å"I don’t think it’s a question of whether we need VoIP, but when it will come together, because it represents a natural progress o f integrating data- period. The IP protocol is probably the most efficient at combining a universal communications network.† Basically, IP telephony is taking the telecom world by storm. It has evolved from a little known and used application in 1995 to an application that is poised for global adoption. But as with all technology, there is a price to be paid, and several entities vying for a piece of the pie. WHAT IS VoIP and HOW DOES IT WORK? To put it simply, VoIP means Voice over Internet Protocol. It’s a technology that allows network managers to route phone call over the network they use for data transmission. A voice travels over a corporate Intranet or the Internet instead of the public telephone system. Special gateways installed at both the sending and receiving end of a communications channel converts voice to IP packets and back again to voice. This process must take place in a time frame of less than...

Quotes From the Movie Wedding Crashers

Quotes From the Movie 'Wedding Crashers' The tagline for the movie Wedding Crashers is Lifes a party. Crash it. The movie deals with the exploits of two men, John Beckwith and Jeremy Grey, who crash weddings hoping to have a good time, drink free alcohol and pick up women. The film has several hilarious moments that make viewers laugh out loud. The following ​Wedding Crasher quotes take you on a journey through this laugh-a-minute comedy. John Beckwith What are you doing? Its a game of touch football, every time I look over youre on your ass again.What are you going to do for an encore? Walk on water?You know how they say we only use 10 percent of our brains? I think we only use 10 percent of our hearts.Im sorry I called you a hillbilly. I dont even know what that means.Love doesnt exist, thats what Im trying to tell you guys. And Im not picking on love, cause I dont think friendship exists either.Were brothers from New Hampshire. Were venture capitalists.I am going to go dance with the little flower girl. Oh, and I might be a charter member of Oprahs book club. Jeremy Grey Tattoo on the lower back? Might as well be a bulls eye.Grab that net and catch that beautiful butterfly pal.Im gonna go see Dr. Finklestein, and Im gonna tell him we have a whole new bag of issues. We can forget about mom for a while.I felt like Jodie Foster in The Accused last night.I happen to know everything there is to know about maple syrup! I love maple syrup. I love maple syrup on pancakes. I love it on pizza. And I take maple syrup and put a little bit in my hair when Ive had a rough week. What do you think holds it up, slick?I hope you flip your bike over and knock your two front teeth out! You selfish son of a bitch! You leave me in the trenches taking grenades, John!A friend in need is a pest.Im just warming up. Last week I did an exact [balloon] replica, to scale, of Wrigley Field. Honest to God. I dont have anywhere to put it.She hasnt returned your phone calls, she hasnt responded to any of your letters, she didnt respond to the candygram. God knows what happened to the kitten you got for her. Cause she didnt keep it, and I know youre not raising the goddamn thing. I think its very obvious at this juncture that she just flat out does not wanna see you. Im not perfect, but who are we kidding. neither are you. Chazz Reinhold Grief is natures most powerful aphrodisiac.  I almost numchucked  you; you dont even realize!  Yeah, her boyfriend just died. Dude died in a hang-gliding accident! What an idiot . Mrs. Kroeger You shut your mouth when youre talking to me! Todd Cleary Death, you are my bitch lover. Vivian Would you say youre completely full of shit or just 50 percent?

Johns Keys to Success Idiomatic Story

John's Keys to Success Idiomatic Story Here is a story about an accomplished businessman and happily gave advice to young people whom he mentored. Youll find idiom definitions and a short quiz on some of the expressions at the end of the story.  Try reading the story one time to understand the gist without using the idiom definitions. On your second reading, use the definitions to help you understand the text while learning new idioms. Johns Keys to Success John is an incredibly accomplished and successful businessman. As such, he is quite popular as a mentor. He enjoys showing young professionals the ropes. The first thing he says is that his career has certainly not always been smooth sailing. In fact, he learned a number of lessons along the way. First and foremost, John said, dont believe that success is ever mana from heaven. He said that everyone he had met had a similar rags to riches story, and that a lot of hard work had gone into the success. John believes in hard work, but also in recognizing the right opportunities. Its absolutely essential to never spread yourself too thin John advised. If you have too many irons in the fire, youll certainly miss out on real opportunity he continued. Ive seen people as busy as a bee who never really seem to do anything he pointed out. The more I thought about this advice, the more I understood what he was saying. If you put on your thinking cap, youll realize that its impossible to really concentrate if you have to worry about fifty different things. Another important lesson was that its important to know which side your bread is buttered on and make sure to give that activity your full attention. In other words, you need to ride the gravy train. Dont start looking for new challenges if everything is working out for the best! John stressed that the most important ability of any successful entrepreneur was to have the presence of mind to not only take advantage of an opportunity but also to keep your eye on the ball. Some people are quick on the uptake, but then they get bored. Its important to be consistent, but not spread yourself too thin. Finally, make sure to never show your hand to your opponents. In any case, thats how to be successful according to John. Idioms Used in the Story smooth sailing an easy life with no problemsknow which side ones bread is buttered on to understand what is most important for oneselfride the gravy train to make money by doing something that is already proven to be successfulkeep ones eye on the ball to concentrate and continue doing wellmana from heaven surprise richesfrom rags to riches from poor to richshow someone the ropes to explain and show by example how something is done properlyas busy as a bee very busy (also busy as a beaver)work out for the best to end with the best possible resultquick on the uptake to understand very quicklyhave the presence of mind to do something to be aware and able to grasp an opportunityshow ones hand to show others what advantages you have in a situationput on ones thinking cap to concentratespread oneself too thin to do too many thingshave too many irons in the fire to do too many things Idioms Quiz My friend is as ________________ these days. He never gets time to relax.Weve been lucky in life. Its been _____________ since the very beginning.  Im sure the situation will improve. It will _________________.You need to ____________________ for this problem. It requires a lot of concentration.Alan ___________________ during the negotiations for the business deal.Franklin went from ________________ in his life. He started with nothing and ended up a very rich person.Some artists are lucky and have a huge hit early in life. Then they ______________________ for many years afterwards.My boss _________ me ______________ at work because it was my first week. Quiz Answers busy as a beesmooth sailingwork out for the bestput on your thinking capshowed his handrags to richesride the gravy trainshowed me the ropes More Idioms and Expressions in Context Stories Learn more expressions using stories with one or more of these further  idioms in context stories with quizzes. Its important to learn and use idioms in context. Of course, idioms are not always easy to understand. There are  idiom and expression resources  that can help with definitions, but reading them in short stories can also provide context that make them come more alive.

Assignment 2 PSA test Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Assignment 2 PSA test - Essay Example Prostate-specific antigen exists in small amounts in the serum of people with fit prostates but is frequently elevated in the existence of prostate cancer or other prostate turmoil. Though serum, prostate-specific antigen, measurement is frequently applied in prostate cancer screening. Its cost is controversial (Craig 23). The Prostate Cancer Research Foundation of Canada (PCRFC) does not advocate for its regular use by healthy men. The PCRFC found that PSA-based prostate cancer screening show small or missing reductions in prostate-cancer–specific deaths, and is linked to overtreatment and over diagnosis. This paper will discuss prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test in Canada and determine the level of the test’s use in prostate cancer screening. It will discuss whether the procedure is cost effective and estimate how much money is wasted in the procedure. Finally, it will discuss alternative procedures that are cost effective to the consumers. The prostate-specific antigen test determines the blood level of PSA, enzyme formed by the prostate. Prostate-specific antigen is a serine protease comparable to kallikrein-3. Its function is to liquefy gelatinous semen once ejaculation is carried out, permitting spermatozoa to steer through the uterine cervix. Prostate-specific antigen testing is contentious and may bring unnecessary and damaging effects in some patients. Ever since PSA screening was initiated in Canada, more than a million men in the country have been diagnosed and cured of prostate cancer (Pickles 4). It has been projected that the vast majority, more than 90% of men, get no benefit from this diagnosis. Even though a person makes a positive assumption regarding the advantage of screening, less than 10% of men getting a positive diagnosis receive any benefit at all from it. Positive assumption refers to the entire decline in prostate cancer deaths witnessed since the opening of PSA testing. Other studies,

Marketing Management of Nike Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing Management of Nike - Essay Example Price Nike has a premium pricing strategy and its products are largely targeted towards the premium customers (Axelby, 2003:89). The company attributes and justifies its pricing strategy by providing high quality products to the customers. The formidable brand image of Nike also acts as a decisive factor in formulating the pricing strategy. Due to the formidable brand image of the product, the customer is quite willing to pay a premium for the products of the company as it has made a distinction for quality across the markets globally. Place Nike has a multi-channel distribution strategy in which the company uses both the direct as well as the indirect channel for distribution. The company ensures a combination of all vertical channels in an attempt to amalgamate them for distribution. The company has a bricks and clicks format that involves selling products through retail outlets (both company owned and multi-brand retailers) as well as through e-commerce websites. However, the indi rect form of distribution is the primary channel of sales considering the fact that it helps in providing more value to consumers. It also gives a tangible touch to the service offering generating competitive advantage (Baiker, 2007:32). Promotions Promotions are the most vital aspect of the marketing mix of Nike as it forms the only channel of communicating with the target market audience. The promotions strategy of Nike involves use of both traditional and online channels for communication. Traditional channels include advertisements on television and print media while online channels involve use of various social networking sites.... According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that the era of globalization has not only opened up new vistas for business organizations but has also created a high competition in the business markets with organizations reaching out to every market where opportunities are available. In this regard, ensuring a formidable positioning and a good marketing mix is an essential aspect that is needed to survive in this tough competitive environment. In order to remain sustainable in the market and stay ahead of the competitors, it is very essential to have a product mix that ensures a formidable image of the products or the brand in the minds of the target market segments. It is also very important to analyze the consumer behavior of the target market audience so as to have an idea about the needs and wants of the consumers. This is important as it defines the positioning of the brand which is very critical to the success of the company. The most important duty of the compa ny is to generate highest return to its shareholders that forms the ultimate aim of any organization. In this regard, the company has followed a strategy of expanding rapidly into international markets, and also seeks to formulate strategies such as outsourcing in a manner so as to help reduce cost and generate greater efficiency that can be ultimately generated as profits to be passed on to the shareholders.

The future of US military intervention Research Paper

The future of US military intervention - Research Paper Example Whereas the United States policy makers were quick to launch these interventions, the results of such moves have offered invaluable lessons regarding future military interventions. This research paper seeks to analyze the future of U.S. military interventions in regard to past interventions in countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan. The case in point is the Malian case where at least three terror organizations are suspected to be operational in this North American state. However, the United States has been cautious in its move to send its military to this nation. What are some of the probable reasons that have triggered such an attitude? Will United States consider intervention in future humanitarian crisis in Mali as even the extremist Islamic terrorist organizations continue propagating acts of terror on Malian citizens and neighboring states? These are some of the major question that this research paper seeks to analyze. Background The last decade has seen the United States milita ry engaged in two major wars- the Iraq war and the Afghanistan war. Thousands of army personnel each year are sent across the seas to eliminate illegal terror groups or regimes that threaten the national security of the U.S. and the world in general. It is worth noting that these interventions have been a matter of necessity rather than desire to exercise superiority complex. For instance, the U.S. intervention in Iraq was necessitated by the fact that the Iraq leader, Sadaam Hussein, propagated all sorts of human abuses against its citizens as well as threatened the U.S. homeland security. On the other hand, the choice for President Bush’s government to send military in Afghanistan was necessitated by the terrorist attacks in American soil in 2001. Al-Qaeda, which is a terrorist organization harbored in Afghanistan, claimed responsibility for the attack that killed approximately 3000 people and left a trail of massive destruction behind1. Nearly 12 years ever since the first troops made their way to Afghanistan in the wake of the September 11 attacks, American has been left counting its losses. Over seven thousand lives have been lost and approximately $3 trillion spent. U.S. policymakers are now faced with a far different strategic reality than it did before the commencement of the war. Currently, the U.S. economy is comparatively weaker and there is mounting pressure to cut down on the budget spent in the military. Also, the military forces have significantly been worn out following constant deployment of the forces. As a result, the idea of sending additional ground forces overseas appears almost unthinkable even in cases where the course pursued is significantly justifiable2. According to the recent polls conducted and released by Gallup and the Council on Foreign Relations, the United States domestic support for military action has hit its lowest mark ever since the years following the Vietnam War. As all this developments and considerations are t aking place, the reality on the ground is that unstable regions around the globe-North Africa, the Middle East, and Central America are in dire need for U.S. support in terms of expertise, technical aspect and advisory. In vein of the above developments, the biggest question that remains in the mind of many Americans is whether United States will be willing to carry out further military interventions in countries such as Mali. It is almost

Homlessness in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Homlessness in America - Essay Example The third intervention for reducing homelessness is by incorporating the input of various organisations and corporate bodies dealing with the provision of services for the homeless and their welfare, more so in metropolitan areas. In fact, there are numerous charitable organisations that could be instrumental in raising funds for settling the homeless (Rhodes & Frey, 2011). The third strategy for reducing homelessness is the provision of the critical subsidy for housing trust funds and other long- and short-term homeless support funds. This subsidy will not only help long-term homeless people find houses but will also maintain the already established housing projects. The above strategies are however not as effective in reducing homelessness as preventive strategies are. However, if it is rather late to prevent a case of homelessness, it is advisable that such family or individual is quickly moved into housing. Through these strategies, the homeless would be less anxious, feel safe, and their children will have strong foundation for education, social skill building, and good health (Rhodes & Frey, 2011). Rhodes, C. K., and Frey, J. R. (2011). Preventing and Reducing Homelessness: Investments That Save both Lives and Money. Retrieved on June 12, 2012 from

How Advertising is influenced by Ethics Research Paper

How Advertising is influenced by Ethics - Research Paper Example the literature review below, a comprehensive discussion on the different aspect of ethics and its influence on advertising for healthcare segment has been stated, which will assist the readers in getting a glimpse of the control that ethical advertising has on healthcare segment. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Influence of Ethics in Advertising Advertisements influence the thought process of the people and modify their outlook and behavior for the environment around them and the world. Therefore, moral principles, which are better known to be ethics, should be taught and understood by the advertisers, so that they can positively deliver the message that they intend to transmit. Ethics in advertising involves certain moral principles that have crucial role. The moral principle mainly emphasize on truthfulness, social dignity and responsibility of human beings. Truthfulness or honesty is the first characteristics that every advertisement must possess. Misrepresentation of information or exag geration should be strictly avoided. On the other hand, human dignity should not be harmed through advertisement, through criticism that violates rights or involves discriminations on any grounds. Ethics is just the starting point in advertising. The ethical decisions that are taken by the advertisers are generally complex and it includes steering through a moral maze of contradictory forces. When advertisements are developed by marketers, contradictions are apparent between cost and ethics, strategy and ethics or effectiveness and ethics. It is the obligation of the advertiser or the advertising professional to have an absolute knowledge of the industry standards, so that tactics can be executed without barring the industry norms. In these situations, aspects like personal judgment and... According to a customer, advertising is a way by which marketers can demonstrate about their product and lure them to buy it. However, advertising is not mere a lure game. It goes beyond just showing what is there to be sold. It is a serious business, which might cost lives of customers if not ethically done. In this research paper, the focus was on exploring the influence of ethics in advertising in healthcare marketing. Healthcare marketing involves promoting medicines, healthcare service by hospital and physicians, etc. Ethics is the most significant characteristics in advertising, but in healthcare segment, it is further important because it involves well-being of humans and animals too. Every country has their set of regulations and code of ethics for advertising, marketing or promotion. However, innumerable cases of misrepresentation, unethical practice, exaggeration, false claims, etc reveal that there are loop hole in codes of ethics which are being taken advantage of. There are no restrictions on freedom of speech or expression in any country, but it would be recommended that stricter laws for advertisement selection or broadcasting on television or online platforms.

Homlessness in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Homlessness in America - Essay Example The third intervention for reducing homelessness is by incorporating the input of various organisations and corporate bodies dealing with the provision of services for the homeless and their welfare, more so in metropolitan areas. In fact, there are numerous charitable organisations that could be instrumental in raising funds for settling the homeless (Rhodes & Frey, 2011). The third strategy for reducing homelessness is the provision of the critical subsidy for housing trust funds and other long- and short-term homeless support funds. This subsidy will not only help long-term homeless people find houses but will also maintain the already established housing projects. The above strategies are however not as effective in reducing homelessness as preventive strategies are. However, if it is rather late to prevent a case of homelessness, it is advisable that such family or individual is quickly moved into housing. Through these strategies, the homeless would be less anxious, feel safe, and their children will have strong foundation for education, social skill building, and good health (Rhodes & Frey, 2011). Rhodes, C. K., and Frey, J. R. (2011). Preventing and Reducing Homelessness: Investments That Save both Lives and Money. Retrieved on June 12, 2012 from

Critical Discourse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Critical Discourse - Essay Example This paper approves that the power and dominance are associated with specific social domains such as politics, media, law, education and science that are allied with the studies of professional and institutional power. The background of the reproduction of power in various domains of social group is an important factor for the analysis in a corrective manner. This power has certain targets for such powers; these are usually catered to by public clients and other social groups that depend on the institutional and organizational power. The study has discussed various topics of critical discourse analysis and communication analysis in relation to the application of power and language. The theoretical framework has also been analyzed for the purpose of understanding the concepts of discourse and power with the understanding of domination groups and powerful groups within the analysis. The methodology, strengths and weaknesses of critical discourse analysis and communication analysis have been explained in the study so as to recognize the relevance of study. The basic structure of discourse and interface between the power and discourse has been performed at the same time. The relation of discourse and action in the context of social groups, and society at large, is the major subject study for the integration of various approaches of discourse. In this way the study will work to accomplish the objectives of the prior studies as well as to understand the multidisciplinary approach of critical discourse analysis and comm unication analysis in a better and more complete manner.... The terminology of conversation analysis itself indicates that the initial stage of conversation analysis consists of casual conversation and thereafter, the procedure of analysis begins. The methods of conversation analysis were subsequently adapted to embrace more task and institution centered interactions. Therefore, the term 'conversation analysis' has become important as a successful approach to conversation with the perspective of social interaction. Conversation Analysis Methodology of CA The conception of humanity, social sciences and interactions are important and therefore, the concept of critical discourse analysis and communication analysis has gained so much importance in recent years. Currently, the communication analysis is a proven method for sociology, anthropology, linguistics, speech communication and psychology (Emanuel, 2000). Communication analysis is not designed for the purpose of examining the production of interaction from a perspective that is external to t he social circle and understanding the communication in a better manner (Jefferson, 2007). But the actual purpose of communication analysis is to model the resources and methods from which the understanding of communication can be reproduced in a substantial manner (Lazar, 2005). Methodology of CA Application of CA and CDA In recent years, communication analysis and critical discourse analysis have expanded their application and scope. At the same time, their concepts and understandings have complemented various other theories, which have supported the application of critical discourse and communication analysis (Goffman, 2005). Many researchers have deployed communication analysis in different fields, such as feminist linguistics, Membership Categorization Analysis and

HP deskjet Essay Example for Free

HP deskjet Essay Case: Hewlett-Packard-Supplying the Deskjet Printer in Europe The DeskJet printer was introduced in 1988 and has become one of Hewlett-Packards (HPs) most successful products. Sales have grown steadily, reaching a level of over 600,000 units in 1990. Unfortunately, inventory growth has tracked sales growth closely. HPs distribution centers are filled with pallets of the DeskJet printer. Worse yet, the organization in Europe claims that inventory levels there need to be raised even further to maintain satisfactory product availability. THE DESKJET SUPPLY CHAIN The network of suppliers, manufacturing sites, distribution centers (DCs), dealers, and customers for the DeskJet product make up the DeskJet supply chain (see Exhibit 17. 14). HP in Vancouver does manufacturing. There are two key stages in the manufacturing process: (1) printed circuit assembly and test (PCAT) and (2) final assembly and test (FAT). PCAT involves the assembly and testing of electronic components (like integrated circuits, read-only memories, and raw printed circuit boards) to make logic boards used in the printer. FAT involves the assembly of other subassemblies (like motors, cables, keypads, plastic chassis, gears, and the printed circuit assemblies from PCAT) to produce a working printer, as well as the final testing of the printer. The components needed for PCAT and FAT are sourced from other HP divisions as well as from external suppliers worldwide. Exhibit 17.14 HP DeskJet Supply Chain Selling the DeskJet in Europe requires customizing the printer to meet the language and power supply requirements of the local countries, a process known as â€Å"localization.† Specifically, the localization of the DeskJet of different countries involves assembling the appropriate power supply module, which reflects the correct voltage requirements (110 or 220) and power cord plug, and packaging it with the working printer and a manual written in the appropriate language. Currently, the final test is done with the actual power supply module included with the printer. Hence, the finished products of the factory are â€Å"localized† versions of the printer destined for all the different countries. For the European Market six different versions are currently produced. These are designated A, AA, AB, AQ, AU, and AY as indicated in the Bills of Materials shown in Exhibit 17.15. Exhibit 17.15 HP DeskJet Bill of Materials The total factory throughput time through the PCAT and FAT stages is about one week. The transportation time from Vancouver to the European DC is five weeks. The long shipment time to Europe is due to ocean transit and the time to clear customs and duties at port of entry. The plant sends a weekly shipment of printers to the DC in Europe. The printer industry is highly competitive. Resellers want to carry as little inventory as possible. Consequently, there has been increasing pressure for HP as a manufacturer to provide high levels of availability at the DC. In response, management has decided to stock the DCs so that a high level of availability is maintained. THE INVENTORY SERVICE CRISIS To limit the amount of inventory throughout the DeskJet supply chain and at the same time provide the high level of service needed has been quite a challenge to Vancouvers management. The manufacturing group has been very successful in reducing the uncertainties caused by delivery to the European DC. Forecasting demand in Europe, though, is a significant problem. It has become common to have product shortages for model demands from some countries, while inventory of other models keeps piling up. In the past, the target inventory levels at the DCs were based on safety stocks that were a result of some judgmental rule of thumb. Specifically, target inventory levels, equal to one-month average sales, were set for each model carried in the DC. Now, however, it seems that the increasing difficulty of getting accurate forecasts means the safety stock rules should be revisited. HP has put together a team of employees to help implement a scientifically based safety stock system that will be responsive to forecast errors and replenishment lead times. They are to recommend a method for calculating appropriate safety stock levels for the various DeskJet models carried in  the European DC. The team has a good sample of demand data that can be used for developing the safety stock methodology (see Exhibit 17.16). HP hopes this new methodology will solve the inventory and service problem.

SWOT Analysis of Tesla

SWOT Analysis of Tesla Tesla, Inc. is an American company that specializes in electric automobiles, energy storage, and solar panel manufacturing. Founded in 2003, Tesla has recently disrupted many industries, most notably the auto industry. Tesla’s focus on electric power vehicles, lithium-ion battery, and energy storage set itself apart from their competitors; â€Å"Tesla has expanded its focus from simply building the best electric car to paving the way for autonomous vehicles, solar power, and so much more† (Houser, 2017). This demonstration of leadership and shared knowledge expresses their overall effort to â€Å"accelerate the advent of sustainable transport† (Musk, 2013). While it isnt common for a company to hope their competitors copy their products, this is exactly what CEO, Elon Musk, hopes for. While Tesla is a business, it is more interested in the fundamental good of getting the auto industry as a whole to move towards sustainable transport faster; the first step in doin g so would be to get their competitors to follow suit. As defined in the text, a SWOT analysis is â€Å"a technique through which managers create a quick overview of a company’s strategic situation† (Pearce, 2015). Tesla, Inc., like any company, has strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities that are unique to their company specifically. (S)trengths The strengths of a company are focused on proficiency, skill, and the advantages of an organization. Tesla, Inc. stands out against competitors due to their unique position in the market. Tesla has created a market for cars that are both luxurious and long range electric. By doing so, they have set themselves apart from their competitors who either offer luxury gas vehicles or less expensive electric vehicles, but not both. Tesla, Inc. is also reputable for its high rate of innovation, especially in introducing the world’s first fully electric sports car. Apart from its range of vehicles, Tesla also makes solar energy and energy storage systems. All three of their current product lines are highly innovative and equipped with the best, most advanced technologies. Prior to Tesla, consumers often had to choose a car between a car that would fit their luxurious desires or a car that didn’t need to be fueled by high gas prices and would contribute towards a healthy and stabl e environment. In alignment with their innovation, Tesla doesnt use the traditional method of car selling through dealerships; Instead, they sell their own cars through Tesla-branded stores. Through this approach, Tesla is able to go directly to the customer. However, another valid reason for Tesla to not follow the traditional strategy to selling its cars is because Tesla is not the typical car; Unlike gas-run vehicles, Teslas cars use a different business model that does not require services such as tune-ups and oil changes. In addition, Tesla is better off selling themselves rather than through a dealership because of the conflict of interest in being assorted with gas-powered vehicles; this poorly aligns with their image and does not make the dealership approach a good advocate for their all electric brand image. While it is important to recognize a company’s strengths, it is also important to acknowledge their weaknesses. There is no such thing as a company that only has strengths, the reason for that is because no company has unlimited resources. Companies and businesses have a minimal amount of resources and have to use their limited amount to focus and support their strengths. (W)eaknesses Weaknesses are areas that a company can improve in; they are the factors that prevent an organization from reaching its full potential. While most are highly supportive and encouraging of Tesla and their mission, many of their supporters can’t represent and purchase the car themselves due to the high cost of the car. Teslas current models readily available for sale, Model S and Model X, are quite costly with them both having a starting price tag of roughly $80,000. Such a high cost makes them not affordable to be purchased among the middle class, which significantly decreases the size of their potential audience. Tesla fully develops the vehicles as well as their sub-assemblies themselves, which results in a high cost of production per vehicle. With that said, it would be difficult for Tesla to make their cars more affordable whilst making a profit. The Model 3, Tesla’s more affordable model, begins at a cost of $35,000 before incentives which is an extreme price slash in comparison to their other models. While the Model 3 may be well priced for customers, it doesn’t seem to be priced to a point where Tesla will make much profit, if any at all. It seems that Model 3 is a big risk in terms of financial gain because â€Å"in order for Tesla to break even on the vehicle, UBS believes that customers must purchase nearly $6,000 in additional options† (Stumpf, 2017). However, the production of Model 3 may provide the company to seek opportunities they could not before. (O)pportunities Opportunities are external factors that may contribute to the organization while supporting the strengths. Model 3 is Teslas newest release which is a smaller, more affordable version of Model S with less range, power, and fewer features. The $35,000 model is currently available to be reserved. This is a huge opportunity for Tesla to expand the size of their audience market, primarily because one of the main disadvantages previously was that the cost was too high for the middle class to afford. Upon reserving the model, there is a twelve to eighteen month waiting period to receive the car. â€Å"According to an update from Tesla, about 373,000 people want to buy the Model 3† (Shen, 2017). With hundreds of thousands of people waiting for their Model 3, there is more demand than there is supply, which explains the waiting period. According to the Bloomberg Model 3 tracker â€Å"Tesla has manufactured 7,618 Model 3s so far, and is now building approximately 1,052 a week† ( Randall, 2018). This opportunity of making models for the middle class also creates, and is proven in the current evidence, an increase the ongoing demand. A third opportunity that Tesla is taking the lead in is autonomous driving. Autonomous driving is a big opportunity for Tesla to break through that has the potential to completely change everything about the future of transportation. Although it is more in the test phase at the moment, the possibilities are huge and will disrupt and cause many different industries to be altered once it is under effect. (T)hreats Threats include potential issues and risks that may be caused by external factors. A major threat that Tesla, Inc. faces is competition from both luxurious and environmentally friendly car brands; this will be even more problematic when their competitors, who haven’t already, release their own and possibly more advanced electric vehicles. Because the cost of Tesla’s current makes and models are so pricey, they currently face the threat of brands like Ford and Nissan. Ford and Nissan, two brands that also offer electric, environmentally friendly vehicles, do so at a more affordable price of approximately $30,000. Future competition is also likely by companies like Toyota who plans to offer more than ten purely electric vehicle models in its lineup by early 2020. Another possible threat to Tesla is their experimentation with price skimming. Price skimming is a product pricing strategy by which a firm charges the highest initial price that customers will pay. Then, as the demand of the first customers are satisfied, the firm lowers the price to attract another, more price-sensitive segment. This is exactly what Tesla is doing with their Model 3, which shows to have a high demand, but low profit. It is uncertain how they will be financially affected, but current study shows a loss of profit. Conclusion The main message of Tesla, Inc.’s mission is â€Å"to accelerate the advent of sustainable transport by bringing compelling mass market electric cars to market as soon as possible† (Musk, 2013). From vehicles, to solar energy, to energy storage systems, all of Teslas products are related to sustainability; To be sustainable is what the company was built around in order to reach their end goals. The conducted SWOT analysis for Tesla, Inc. provides the opportunity to better understand the environment in which they operate; it ultimately highlights important factors which affect both its internal and external environment. In the future, it is expected that there will be major advancements made in the fields that Tesla, Inc. are involved in. Such progress will change the world for the better, but to do that requires every individual within the world to willingly adapt. References Houser, K. (2017, February 26). 7 Ways Tesla Is Changing Everything. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from https://futurism.com/ready-for-edit-7-ways-tesla-is-changing-everything/ Musk, E. (2013, November 19). The Mission of Tesla. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from https://www.tesla.com/blog/mission-tesla Pearce, J. A., & Robinson, R. B. (2015).  Strategic management: planning for domestic & global competition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Randall, T., & Halford, D. (2018, February 14). Tesla Model 3 production tracker. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-tesla-tracker/ Retrieved February 16, 2018, from https://www.tesla.com/about 7 Reasons Why Tesla Insists on Selling its Own Cars. (2016, January 19). Retrieved February 19, 2018, from http://fortune.com/2016/01/19/why-tesla-sells-directly/ Shen, L. (2017, July 3). Everything You Need to Know About Teslas Cheapest Car Ever. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from http://fortune.com/2017/07/03/tesla-model-3-electric-car/ Stumpf, R. (2017, May 21). Researchers Estimate Break-Even On Tesla Model 3 at $41,000. Retrieved February 19, 2018, from http://www.thedrive.com/new-cars/10479/researchers-estimate-break-even-on-tesla-model-3-at-41000

Feminist Reading of The Yellow Wallpaper -- Feminism Feminist Women Cr

A Feminist Reading of The Yellow Wallpaper      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the late nineteenth century, after the American social and economic shift commonly referred to as the "Industrial Revolution" had changed the very fabric of American society, increased attention was paid to the psychological disorders that apparently had steamed up out of the new smokestacks and skyscrapers in urban populations (Bauer, 131).   These disorders were presumed to have been born out of the exhaustion and "wear and tear" of industrial society (Bauer, 131-132).   An obvious effect of these new disorders was a slew of physicians and psychiatrists advocating one sort of cure or another, although the "rest cure" popularized by the physician S. Weir Mitchell was the most embraced (Bauer, 131; Saur, 151-152).   However, while the "rest cure" for men involved physical exercise and leisure activities, the cure for women was a suffocating slice of seclusion, bed rest, and no intellectual activity (Bauer, 131).      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Charlotte Perkins Gilman, a renowned feminist and author, was one of the women affected with "...a severe and continuous nervous breakdown tending to melancholia..," which was commonly termed as "neurasthenia" (Gilman, 348-349).   However, rather than cure her, Mitchell's "rest cure" nearly drove her insane.   As a result of her maddening experience away from writing and almost all intellectual thought, she wrote her short story, "The Yellow Wallpaper" not "...to drive people crazy," but instead to "...save people from being driven crazy" (Gilman, 349).   Although her purpose in writing the story is clear, one can not help but wonder if she was motivated solely by her protest to nineteenth century medical practice or by her protest to the legal and socia... ... Boston/New York:   Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998.   130-132. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins.   "The Yellow Wallpaper." The Yellow Wallpaper.   Ed. Dale M. Bauer.   Boston/New York:   Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998.   41-58. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins.   "Why I Wrote The Yellow Wallpaper?" The Yellow Wallpaper.   Ed. Dale M. Bauer.   Boston/New York:   Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998. 348-349. Mitchell, S. Weir.   "From Wear and Tear, or Hints for the Overworked." The Yellow Wallpaper.   Ed. Dale M. Bauer.   Boston/New York:   Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998. 134-141. Saur, Prudence B.   "From Maternity; A Book for Every Wife and Mother." The Yellow Wallpaper.   Ed. Dale M. Bauer. Boston/New York:   Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998. 151- 155. Williams, William C.   "Old Doc Rivers."   The Doctor Stories.   Ed. Robert Coles.   New York:   New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1984.   13-41.

Ethical Decision Making and Behavior

7 Ethical Decision Making and Behavior As we practice resolving dilemmas we find ethics to be less a goal than a pathway, less a destination than a trip, less an inoculation than a process. —Ethicist Rushworth Kidder WHAT’S AHEAD This chapter surveys the components of ethical behavior—moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character—and introduces systematic approaches to ethical problem solving. We’ll take a look at four decision-making formats: Kidder’s ethical checkpoints, the SAD formula, Nash’s 12 questions, and the case study method.After presenting each approach, I’ll discuss its relative advantages and disadvantages. U nderstanding how we make and follow through on ethical decisions is the first step to making better choices; taking a systematic approach is the second. We’ll explore both of these steps in this chapter. After examining the ethical decision-making process, we’ll see ho w guidelines or formats can guide our ethical deliberations. 235 236——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Components of Moral Action There are a number of models of ethical decision making and action.For example, business ethics educators Charles Powers and David Vogel identify six factors or elements that underlie moral reasoning and behavior and that are particularly relevant in organizational settings. 1 The first is moral imagination, the recognition that even routine choices and relationships have an ethical dimension. The second is moral identification and ordering, which, as the name suggests, refers to the ability to identify important issues, determine priorities, and sort out competing values.The third factor is moral evaluation, or using analytical skills to evaluate options. The fourth element is tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity, which arises when managers disagree about values and courses of action. The fifth is the ability to integrate m anagerial competence with moral competence. This integration involves anticipating possible ethical dilemmas, leading others in ethical decision making, and making sure any decision becomes part of an organization’s systems and procedures.The sixth and final element is a sense of moral obligation, which serves as a motivating force to engage in moral judgment and to implement decisions. James Rest of the University of Minnesota developed what may be the most widely used model of moral behavior. Rest built his four-component model by working backward. He started with the end product—moral action—and then determined the steps that produce such behavior. He concluded that ethical action is the result of four psychological subprocesses: (1) moral sensitivity (recognition), (2) moral judgment, (3) moral focus (motivation), and (4) moral character. Component 1: Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) Moral sensitivity (recognizing the presence of an ethical issue) is the firs t step in ethical decision making because we can’t solve a moral problem unless we first know that one exists. A great many moral failures stem from ethical insensitivity. The safety committee at Ford Motor decided not to fix the defective gas tank on the Pinto automobile (see Chapter 2) because members saw no problem with saving money rather than human lives.Wal-Mart was slow to respond to concerns raised by employees, labor groups, environmentalists, and others about wage violations, sexual discrimination, poor environmental practices, and other issues. 3 Many students, focused on finishing their degrees, see no problem with cheating. (You can test your ethical sensitivity by completing the â€Å"Self-Assessment: Moral Sensitivity Scenarios. †) According to Rest, problem recognition requires that we consider how our behavior affects others, identify possible courses of action, and determine theCHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——237 consequ ences of each potential strategy. Empathy and perspective skills are essential to this component of moral action. If we understand how others might feel or react, we are more sensitive to potential negative effects of our choices and can better predict the likely outcomes of each option. A number of factors prevent us from recognizing ethical issues. We may not factor ethical considerations into our typical ways of thinking or mental models. We may be reluctant to use moral terminology (values, justice, right, wrong) to describe our decisions because we want to avoid controversy or believe that keeping silent will make us appear strong and capable. 5 We may even deceive ourselves into thinking that we are acting morally when we are clearly not, a process called ethical fading. The moral aspects of a decision fade into the background if we use euphemisms to disguise unethical behavior, numb our consciences through repeated misbehavior, blame others, and claim that only we know the â €Å"truth. 6 Fortunately, we can take steps to enhance our ethical sensitivity (and the sensitivity of our fellow leaders and followers) by doing the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Active listening and role playing Imagining other perspectives Stepping back from a situation to determine whether it has moral implications Using moral terminology to discuss problems and issues Avoiding euphemisms Refusing to excuse misbehavior Accepting personal responsibility Practicing humility and openness to other points of viewIn addition to these steps, we can also increase ethical sensitivity by making an issue more salient. The greater the moral intensity of an issue, the more likely it is that decision makers will take note of it and respond ethically. 7 We can build moral intensity by doing the following: †¢ Illustrating that the situation can cause significant harm or benefit to many people (magnitude of consequences) †¢ Establishing tha t there is social consensus or agreement that a behavior is moral or immoral (e. g. legal or illegal, approved or forbidden by a professional association) †¢ Demonstrating probability of effect, that the act will happen and will cause harm or benefit †¢ Showing that the consequences will happen soon (temporal immediacy) †¢ Emphasizing social, psychological, physical, or psychological closeness (proximity) with those affected by our actions †¢ Proving that one person or a group will greatly suffer due to a decision (concentration of effect) 238——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Finally, paying attention to our emotions can be an important clue that we are faced with an ethical dilemma.Moral emotions are part of our makeup as humans. 8 These feelings are triggered even when we do not have a personal stake in an event. For example, we may feel angry when reading about mistreatment of migrant workers or sympathy when we see a picture of a refu gee living in a squalid camp. Moral emotions also encourage us to take action that benefits other people and society as a whole. We might write a letter protesting the poor working conditions of migrant laborers, for instance, or send money to a humanitarian organization working with displaced persons. Anger, disgust, and contempt are other-condemning emotions.They are elicited by unfairness, betrayal, immorality, cruelty, poor performance, and status differences. Anger can motivate us to redress injustices like racism, oppression, and poverty. Disgust encourages us to set up rewards and punishments to deter inappropriate behaviors. Contempt generally causes us to step back from others. Shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that encourage us to obey the rules and uphold the social order. These feelings are triggered when we violate norms and social conventions, present the wrong image to others, and fail to live up to moral guidelines.Shame and embarrassment ca n keep us from engaging in further damaging behavior and may drive us to withdraw from social contact. Guilt motivates us to help others and to treat them well. Sympathy and compassion are other-suffering emotions. They are elicited when we perceive suffering or sorrow in our fellow human beings. Such feelings encourage us to comfort, help, and alleviate the pain of others. Gratitude, awe, and elevation are other-praising (positive) emotions that open us up to new opportunities and relationships.They are prompted when someone has done something on our behalf, when we run across moral beauty (acts of charity, loyalty, and self-sacrifice, for example), and when we read or hear about moral exemplars (see Chapter 3). Gratitude motivates us to repay others; awe and elevation encourage us to become better persons and to take steps to help others. In sum, if we experience anger, disgust, guilt, sympathy, or other moral emotions, the chances are good that there is an ethical dimension to th e situation that confronts us. We will need to look further to determine if this is indeed the case.CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——239 SELF-ASSESSMENT MORAL SENSITIVITY SCENARIOS Instructions Read each vignette and consider the following statement: There are very important ethical aspects to this situation. (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) Then briefly explain your rating for each vignette in the space below it. For more information on the ethical issues raised by the scenarios, see Item 1 under â€Å"For Further Exploration, Challenge, and Self-Assessment. † Vignette 1 One of your most important customers, a medical clinic, called yesterday.The clinic had ordered a product 10 days ago (products are normally delivered within 7–10 days), but it had not arrived. Quickly, you traced the order to the shipping office. You asked the shipping clerk about the order, and she said, â€Å"I shipped it 2 days ago! † As you left the shipping office, you glanced at her desk and saw her shipping receipts. You could clearly see that the order was shipped this morning. You called the client back with the news that the product was on its way. As you talked with the client, you learned that the delay of the product had allowed the condition of some patients to worsen quite dramatically. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 2 Last Monday, you were sitting at your desk examining a request that a customer had just faxed to you. The customer was proposing a project that would make a tremendous amount of money for your company but had an extremely demanding time schedule.Just as you were about to call the custo mer and accept the project, one of your employees, Phil, knocked on the door. He entered your office, politely placed a letter of resignation on your desk, and told you he was sorry, but in two weeks, he 240——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies would be moving to another state to be closer to his ailing parents. After he left, you thought about the proposed project and determined that even though Phil would be gone, you could still meet all of the customer’s deadlines. You called the customer and accepted the project. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 3 Earlier today, a salesman who works in Iowa called you and told you about an experience he had last week. One of his customers placed a small order of about $1,500 worth of product from corporate headquarters.The home office immediately shipped the package through a freight company, and it arrived the next day at the freight company’s warehouse in Iowa. The salesman went to the warehouse just as it was closing and talked to one of the managers. The manager said that everyone had gone home for the day, but he assured him that the package would be delivered directly to his office the next day. The salesman knew that the customer did not need the materials for at least another 3 days, but he didn’t want to wait.He placed a $20 bill on the counter and asked the warehouse manager one last time if there was anything he could do. The manager found the paperwork, got the product from the back of the warehouse, and brought it out to the salesman. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________SOURCE: Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: Investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 233–243. Published by the American Psychological Association. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——241 Component 2: Moral Judgment Once an ethical problem is identified, decision makers select a course of action from the options generated in Component 1. In other words, they make judgments about what is the right or wrong thing to do in this situation.Moral judgment has generated more research than the other components of Rest’s model. Investigators have been particularly interested in cognitive moral development, the process by wh ich people develop their moral reasoning abilities over time. Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals progress through a series of moral stages just as they do physical ones. 9 Each stage is more advanced than the one before. Not only do people engage in more complex reasoning as they progress up the stages, but they also become less self-centered and develop broader definitions of morality.Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, each divided into two stages. Level I, preconventional thinking, is the most primitive and focuses on consequences. This form of moral reasoning is common among children who choose to obey to avoid punishment (Stage 1) or follow the rules in order to meet their interests (Stage 2). Stage 2 thinkers are interested in getting a fair deal: You help me, and I’ll help you. Conventional thinkers (Level II) look to others for guidance when deciding how to act.Stage 3 people want to live up to the expectations of those t hey respect, such as parents, siblings, and friends, and value concern for others and respect. Stage 4 individuals take a somewhat broader perspective, looking to society as a whole for direction. They believe in following rules at work, for example, and the law. Kohlberg found that most adults are Level II thinkers. Level III, postconceptual or principled reasoning, is the most advanced type of ethical thinking. Stage 5 people are guided by utilitarian principles.They are concerned for the needs of the entire group and want to make sure that rules and laws serve the greatest good for the greatest number. Stage 6 people operate according to internalized, universal principles such as justice, equality, and human dignity. These principles consistently guide their behavior and take precedence over the laws of any particular society. According to Kohlberg, fewer than 20% of American adults ever reach Stage 5, and almost no one reaches Stage 6. Critics take issue with both the philosophi cal foundation of Kohlberg’s model and its reliance on concrete stages of moral development. 0 They contend that Kohlberg based his postconventional stage on Rawls’s justice-asfairness theory and made deontological ethics superior to other ethical approaches. They note that the model applies more to societal issues than to individual ethical decisions. A great many psychologists challenge the notion 242——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies that people go through a rigid or â€Å"hard† series of moral stages, leaving one stage completely behind before moving to the next. They argue instead that a person can engage in many ways of thinking about a problem, regardless of age.Rest (who studied under Kohlberg), Darcia Narvaez, and their colleagues responded to the critics by replacing the hard stages with a staircase of developmental schemas. 11 Schemas are networks of knowledge organized around life events. We use schemas when encountering new s ituations or information. You are able to master information in new classes, for instance, by using strategies you developed in previous courses. According to this â€Å"neoKohlbergian† approach, decision makers develop more sophisticated moral schemas as they develop. The least sophisticated schema is based on personal interest.People at this level are concerned only with what they may gain or lose in an ethical dilemma. No consideration is given to the needs of broader society. Those who reason at the next level, the maintaining norms schema, believe they have a moral obligation to maintain social order. They are concerned with following rules and laws and making sure that regulations apply to everyone. These thinkers believe that there is a clear hierarchy with carefully defined roles (e. g. , bosses–subordinates, teachers–students, officers– enlisted personnel).The postconventional schema is the most advanced level of moral reasoning. Thinking at this level is not limited to one ethical approach, as Kohlberg argued, but encompasses many different philosophical traditions. Postconventional individuals believe that moral obligations are to be based on shared ideals, should not favor some people at the expense of others, and are open to scrutiny (testing and examination). Such thinkers reason like moral philosophers, looking behind societal norms to determine whether they serve moral purposes. Refer to â€Å"Leadership Ethics at the Movies: Michael Clayton† for an example of a leader who shifts to a higher level of moral reasoning. ) Rest developed the Defining Issues Test (DIT) to measure moral development. Subjects taking the DIT (and its successor, the DIT-2) respond to six ethical scenarios and then choose statements that best reflect the reasoning they used to come up with their choices. These statements, which correspond to the three levels of moral reasoning, are then scored. In the best-known dilemma, Heinz’s wife is dying of cancer and needs a drug he cannot afford to buy.He must decide whether to steal the drug to save her life. Hundreds of studies using the DIT reveal that moral reasoning generally increases with age and education. 12 Undergraduate and graduate students benefit from their educational experiences in general and ethical coursework in particular. When education stops, moral development stops. In addition, moral development is a universal concept, crossing cultural boundaries. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——243 Principled leaders can boost the moral judgment of a group by encouraging members to adopt more sophisticated ethical schemas. 3 Models of cognitive development provide important insights into the process of ethical decision making. First, contextual variables play an important role in shaping ethical behavior. Most people look to others as well as to rules and regulations when making ethical determinations. They are more likely to m ake wise moral judgments if coworkers and supervisors encourage and model ethical behavior. As leaders, we need to build ethical environments. (We’ll take a closer look at the formation of ethical groups and organizations in Chapters 8 and 9. ) Second, education fosters moral reasoning.Pursuing a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree can promote your moral development. As part of your education, focus as much attention as you can on ethics (i. e. , take ethics courses, discuss ethical issues in groups and classes, reflect on the ethical challenges you experience in internships). Third, a broader perspective is better. Consider the needs and viewpoints of others outside your immediate group or organization; determine what is good for the local area, the larger society, and the global community. Fourth, moral principles produce superior solutions.The best ethical thinkers base their choices on widely accepted ethical guidelines. Do the same by drawing on import ant ethical approaches such as utilitarianism, the categorical imperative, altruism, communitarianism, and justice-as-fairness theory. LEADERSHIP ETHICS AT THE MOVIES MICHAEL CLAYTON Key Cast Members: George Clooney, Tilda Swinton, Tom Wilkinson, Sydney Pollack Synopsis: George Clooney stars as Michael Clayton, the â€Å"fixer† for a large New York City firm. Clayton takes care of any messes involving clients, like hit-andrun accidents and shoplifting charges.When the firm’s top litigator (played by Wilkinson) begins to work for the other side in a $3 billion lawsuit, Clayton must get him back on his medications and under control. Karen Crowder (Swinton) is chief counsel for the conglomerate being sued for manufacturing a toxic chemical. She decides to permanently silence both the rogue lawyer and Clayton. The fixer, whose life and reputation have been tarnished by a series of poor ethical and business choices, must now decide how to respond to illegal wiretapping and murder. Swinton won a Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her (Continued) 44——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies (Continued) performance as the ambitious attorney who decides that corporate survival takes precedence over human life. Rating: R for language, including sexual dialogue Themes: moral reasoning, the dark side of leadership, corruption, greed, character, deception Discussion Starters 1. What factors motivated Clayton to become a â€Å"fixer† and the conglomerate’s chief counsel to protect her company at any cost? 2. Was it unethical for the law firm’s top litigator to begin to work for the plaintiffs? Why or why not? 3.What accounts for Clayton’s shift to a higher level of moral reasoning? Component 3: Moral Focus (Motivation) After concluding what course of action is best, decision makers must be focused (motivated to follow through) on their choices. Moral values often conflict with other significant values. For instance, a n accounting supervisor who wants to blow the whistle on illegal accounting practices at her firm must balance her desire to do the right thing against her desire to keep her job, provide income for her family, and maintain relationships with her fellow workers.She will report the accounting abuses to outside authorities only if moral considerations take precedence over these competing priorities. Psychologists report that self-interest and hypocrisy undermine moral motivation. 14 Sometimes individuals genuinely want to do the right thing, but their integrity is â€Å"overpowered† when they discover that they will have to pay a personal cost for acting in an ethical manner. Others never intend to follow an ethical course of action but engage in moral hypocrisy instead. These decision makers â€Å"want to appear moral while, if possible, avoiding the cost of actually being moral. 15 In experimental settings, they say that assignments should be distributed fairly but then assi gn themselves the most desirable tasks while giving less desirable chores to others. Both self-interest and hypocrisy encourage leaders to set their moral principles aside. For example, corporate executives may declare that lower-level employees deserve higher wages. However, whether they really want to help workers or CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——245 just want to appear as if they do, these executives are not likely to pay employees more if it means that they will earn less as a result.Rewards play an important role in ethical follow-through. People are more likely to give ethical values top priority when rewarded through raises, promotions, public recognition, and other means for doing so. Conversely, moral motivation drops when the reward system reinforces unethical behavior. 16 Unfortunately, misplaced rewards are all too common, as in the case of electronics retailers who reward employees for selling expensive extended warranties on new product s. Such warranties are generally a bad deal for consumers. Emotions also play a part in moral motivation. 7 As noted earlier, sympathy, disgust, guilt, and other moral emotions prompt us to take action. We can use their motivational force to help us punish wrongdoers, address injustice, provide assistance, and so on. Other researchers report that positive emotions such as joy and happiness make people more optimistic and more likely to live out their moral choices and to help others. Depression, on the other hand, lowers motivation, and jealousy, rage, and envy contribute to lying, revenge, stealing, and other antisocial behaviors.To increase your moral motivation and the moral motivation of followers, seek out and create ethically rewarding environments. Make sure the reward system of an organization supports ethical behavior before joining it as an employee or a volunteer. Try to reduce the costs of behaving morally by instituting policies and procedures that make it easier to rep ort unethical behavior, combat discrimination, and so on. Work to align rewards with desired behavior in your current organization. Be concerned about how goals are reached. If all else fails, reward yourself.Take pride in following through on your choices and on living up to your self-image as a person of integrity. Tap into moral emotions while making a conscious effort to control negative feelings and to put yourself in a positive frame of mind. Component 4: Moral Character Executing the plan of action takes character. Moral agents have to overcome opposition, resist distractions, cope with fatigue, and develop tactics and strategies for reaching their goals. This helps explain why there is only a moderate correlation between moral judgment and moral behavior.Many times deciding does not lead to doing. The positive character traits described in Chapter 3 contribute to ethical follow-through. Courage helps leaders implement their plans despite the risks and costs of doing so while prudence helps them choose the best course of 246——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies action. Integrity encourages leaders to be true to themselves and their choices. Humility forces leaders to address limitations that might prevent them from taking action. Reverence promotes self-sacrifice. Optimism equips leaders to persist in the face of obstacles and difficulties.Compassion and justice focus the attention of leaders on the needs of others rather than on personal priorities. In addition to virtues, other personal characteristics contribute to moral action. 18 Those with a strong will, as well as confidence in themselves and their abilities, are more likely to persist. The same is true for those with an internal locus of control. Internally oriented people (internals) believe that they have control over their lives and can determine what happens to them. Externally oriented people (externals) believe that life events are beyond their control and are the prod uct of fate or luck instead.Because they have personal responsibility for their actions, internals are more motivated to do what is right. Externals are more susceptible to situational pressures and therefore less likely to persist in ethical tasks. Successful implementation also requires competence. For instance, modifying the organizational reward system may entail researching, organizing, arguing, networking, and relationship-building skills. These skills are put to maximum use when actors have an in-depth understanding of the organizational context: important policies, the group’s history and culture, informal leaders, and so on.Following the character-building guidelines presented in Chapter 3 will go a long way to helping you build the virtues you need to put your moral choices into action. You may also want to look at your past performance to see why you succeeded or failed. Believe that you can have an impact. Otherwise, you are probably not going to carry through whe n obstacles surface. Develop your skills so that you can better put your moral choice into action and master the context in which you operate. Decision-Making Formats Decision-making guidelines or formats can help us make better ethical choices.Taking a systematic approach encourages teams and individuals to carefully define the problem, gather information, apply ethical standards and values, identify and evaluate alternative courses of action, and follow through on their choices. They’re also better equipped to defend their decisions. Four ethical decision-making formats are described in the pages to come. All four approaches are useful. You may want to use just one or a combination of all of them. The particular format you use is not as important as using a systematic approach to moral reasoning. You can practice these guidelines by applying them to Case Study 7. and the scenarios described at the end of the chapter. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior—â €”247 You will probably find it difficult at first to follow a format. That’s because using a format takes a significant amount of effort, and we are used to making rapid judgments mentally when faced with ethical choices. 19 Without being conscious of the fact, we quickly invoke decision-making rules we have learned though experience, such as â€Å"it is always good to obey authority† or â€Å"always be as fair as possible. † Or we intuitively come to a rapid decision based on our emotions and cultural background.Often these quick responses are good ones. But not always. There may be times, for instance, when authority needs to be disobeyed or fairness must be set aside for compassion. Our intuitions are wrong when they are based on mistaken cultural beliefs. For example, many Americans used to immediately condemn interracial couples. As time passed, society recognized that this reaction was biased, unfounded, and unjust. I suggest that, when confronted wit h ethical dilemmas like those in Case Study 7. 1, you write down your initial reaction before using a format. Later compare your final decision to your immediate response.Your ultimate conclusion after following a series of steps may be the same as your first judgment. Or you might find that you come to a significantly different decision. In any case, you should be comfortable with your solution because your deliberations were informed both by your preconscious experiences, emotions, and intuitions as well as by your conscious reasoning. 20 CASE STUDY 7. 1 PARKING LOT SHOOTING Over the past year several employees of a national fast-food chain have been shot or injured when intervening in fights or crimes occurring in the restaurant’s parking lots.As a result, corporate headquarters drafted a new policy that forbids workers from leaving the building in such emergencies, instructing them instead to dial 911. Those who violate the policy will immediately be fired. Imagine that y ou are day-shift manager at one of the company’s locations where a shooting has occurred. You call 911 but notice that the victim, who is lying right outside the door, is bleeding profusely. No one else is stepping up to help the injured man. You have first-aid training and believe you can stabilize his condition before the ambulance arrives.The shooter has apparently fled the scene. Would you disobey company policy and help the shooting victim? 248——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Kidder’s Ethical Checkpoints Ethicist Rushworth Kidder suggests that nine steps or checkpoints can help bring order to otherwise confusing ethical issues. 21 1. Recognize that there is a problem. This step is critically important because it forces us to acknowledge that there is an issue that deserves our attention and helps us separate moral questions from disagreements about manners and social conventions.For example, being late for a party may be bad manners and v iolate cultural expectations. However, this act does not translate into a moral problem involving right or wrong. On the other hand, deciding whether to accept a kickback from a supplier is an ethical dilemma. 2. Determine the actor. Once we’ve determined that there is an ethical issue, we then need to decide who is responsible for addressing the problem. I may be concerned that the owner of a local business treats his employees poorly. Nonetheless, unless I work for the company or buy its products, there is little I can do to address this situation. . Gather the relevant facts. Adequate, accurate, and current information is important for making effective decisions of all kinds, including ethical ones. Details do make a difference. In deciding whether it is just to suspend a student for fighting, for instance, a school principal will want to hear from teachers, classmates, and the offender to determine the seriousness of the offense, the student’s reason for fighting, and the outcome of the altercation. The administrator will probably be more lenient if this is the offender’s first offense and he was defending himself. 4.Test for right-versus-wrong issues. A choice is generally a poor one if it gives you a negative, gut-level reaction (the stench test), would make you uncomfortable if it appeared on the front page of tomorrow’s newspaper (the frontpage test), or would violate the moral code of someone that you care a lot about (the Mom test). If your decision violates any of these criteria, you had better reconsider. 5. Test for right-versus-right values. Many ethical dilemmas pit two core values against each other. Determine whether two good or right values are in conflict with one another in this situation.Right-versus-right value clashes include the following: ? Truth telling versus loyalty to others and institutions. Telling the truth may threaten our allegiance to another person or to an organization, such as when leaders and f ollowers are faced with the decision of whether to blow the whistle on organizational misbehavior (see Chapter 5). Kidder believes that truth versus loyalty is the most common type of conflict involving two deeply held values. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——249 ? Personal needs versus the needs of the community.Our desire to serve our immediate group or ourselves can run counter to the needs of the larger group or community. ? Short-term benefits versus long-term negative consequences. Sometimes satisfying the immediate needs of the group (giving a hefty pay raise to employees, for example) can lead to long-term negative consequences (endangering the future of the business). ? Justice versus mercy. Being fair and even-handed may conflict with our desire to show love and compassion. 6. Apply the ethical standards and perspectives. Apply the ethical principle that is most relevant and useful to this specific issue.Is it communitarianism? Utilitarianism? Kant’s categorical imperative? A combination of perspectives? 7. Look for a third way. Sometimes seemingly irreconcilable values can be resolved through compromise or the development of a creative solution. Negotiators often seek a third way to bring competing factions together. Such was the case in the deliberations that produced the Camp David peace accord. Egypt demanded that Israel return land on the West Bank seized in the 1967 War. Israel resisted because it wanted a buffer zone to protect its security.The dispute was settled when Egypt pledged that it would not attack Israel again. Assured of safety, the Israelis agreed to return the territory to Egypt. 22 8. Make the decision. At some point we need to step up and make the decision. This seems a given (after all, the point of the whole process is to reach a conclusion). However, we may be mentally exhausted from wrestling with the problem, get caught up in the act of analysis, or lack the necessary courage to come to a decision. In Kidder’s words, At this point in the process, there’s little to do but decide.That requires moral courage—an attribute essential to leadership and one that, along with reason, distinguishes humanity most sharply from the animal world. Little wonder, then, that the exercise of ethical decision-making is often seen as the highest fulfillment of the human condition. 23 9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. Learn from your choices. Once you’ve moved on to other issues, stop and reflect. What lessons emerged from this case that you can apply to future decisions? What ethical issues did it raise? Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Is thorough †¢ Considers problem ownership 50——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies †¢ Emphasizes the importance of getting the facts straight †¢ Recognizes that dilemmas can involve right–right as well as right–wrong choices †¢ Encourages the search for creat ive solutions †¢ Sees ethical decision making as a learning process Weaknesses (Cons) †¢ It is not easy to determine who has the responsibility for solving a problem †¢ The facts are not always available, or there may not be enough time to gather them †¢ Decisions don’t always lead to action There is a lot to be said for Kidder’s approach to ethical decision making.For one thing, he seems to cover all the bases, beginning with defining the issue all the way through to learning from the situation after the dust has settled. He acknowledges that there are some problems that we can’t do much about and that we need to pay particular attention to gathering as much information as possible. The ethicist recognizes that some decisions involve deciding between two â€Å"goods† and leaves the door open for creative solutions. Making a choice can be an act of courage, as Kidder points out, and we can apply lessons learned in one dilemma to future problems.On the flip side, some of the strengths of Kidder’s model can also be seen as weaknesses. As we’ll see in Chapter 10, determining responsibility or ownership of a problem is getting harder in an increasingly interdependent world. Who is responsible for poor labor conditions in third-world countries, for instance? The manufacturer? The subcontractor? The store that sells the products made in sweatshops? Those who buy the items? Kidder also seems to assume that leaders will have the time to gather necessary information. Unfortunately, in situations like that described in Case Study 7. 1, time is in short supply.Finally, the model seems to equate deciding with doing. As we saw in our earlier discussion of moral action, we can decide on a course of action but not follow through. Kidder is right to say that making ethical choices takes courage. However, it takes even more courage to put the choice into effect. The SAD Formula Media ethicist Louis Alvin Day of Loui siana State University developed the SAD formula in order to build important elements of critical thinking into moral reasoning. Critical thinking is a rational approach to decision making CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——251 that emphasizes careful analysis and evaluation.It begins with an understanding of the subject to be evaluated; moves to identifying the issues, information, and assumptions surrounding the problem; and then concludes with evaluating alternatives and reaching a conclusion. 24 Each stage of the SAD formula—situation definition, analysis of the situation, decision—addresses a component of critical thinking. (See Box 7. 1. ) To demonstrate this model, I’ll use a conflict involving mandatory vaccinations of health care workers. 25 Situation Definition Health care professionals are at risk for contracting infectious diseases and spreading them to their patients.For that reason, the U. S. government determined that h ealth care workers should be one of the first groups to receive flu vaccines such as the one designed to combat the H1N1 (swine flu) virus. Vaccination can reduce the likelihood of catching the flu by 70%–80% and is one of the best ways to prevent a pandemic. However, fewer than half of U. S. health workers get flu shots every year (rates are also low in Great Britain and Hong Kong). Medical personnel who fail to be vaccinated often do so for the same reasons as other Americans.They don’t like shots, it is not convenient to get them, they claim they seldom get sick, or they believe the vaccine makes them ill (though scientists deny that this happens). Health officials have tried a variety of strategies to increase the percentage of doctors and nurses receiving vaccinations, including promotional campaigns and prize drawings. However, these voluntary efforts have fallen short. Concerned about low participation rates, particularly in light of the danger posed by the swin e flu, Hospital Corporation of America, MedStar Health (Maryland), Virginia Mason (Seattle, WA), BJC HealthCare (St.Louis, MO), and the state of New York began mandatory vaccination programs. A number of clinics and doctor’s offices followed suit. Employees were told they would lose their jobs if they did not get the vaccine. Exceptions were made for those likely to have an allergic reaction (eggs are used in the production of the shots) or those with religious objections. Some health care workers and their unions immediately protested the stricter vaccination policies, labeling such programs as intrusive violations of individual rights. Day says that the ethical question to be addressed should be as narrow as possible.In our example, we will seek to answer the following query: Are mandatory flu-vaccination policies for health care workers ethically justified? 252——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies BOX 7. 1 THE MORAL REASONING PROCESS Situation Definiti on Description of facts Identification of principles and values Statement of ethical issue or question Analysis Weighing of competing principles and values Consideration of external factors Examination of duties to various parties Discussion of applicable ethical theories Decision Rendering of moral agent’s decision Defense of that decision based on moral theory SOURCE: From Day.Ethics in Media Communications: Cases and Controversies, 5E. Copyright  © 2006 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission www. cengage. com/permissions. Analysis Evaluation of Values and Principles. Competing principles and values are clearly present in this situation. On the one side, medical administrators and public health officials put a high value on the responsibility of medical personnel to patients and argue that mandatory vaccinations will save lives, particularly those of vulnerable populations like the sick, those with compromised immune systems, pregnant women, the very young, and the elderly.In requiring mandatory vaccinations in New York, the state’s health commissioner asserted: â€Å"The rationale begins with health-care ethics, which is: The patient’s well-being comes ahead of the personal preferences of health-care workers. †26 (The commissioner later rescinded his edict when there was a shortage of the vaccine. ) The chief medical officer of MedStar Health said the decision to require vaccinations â€Å"is all about patient safety. † On the other side of the debate are individuals, employee unions, and groups CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——253 who put their priority on individual rights.They believe that making flu shots a condition of employment takes away the right to make personal medical decisions, and they have concerns about the safety of the vaccines despite the assurances of medical experts. Opponents also worry that mandatory programs will spread from the health ca re sector into other areas of society. Said a representative of an organization wanting to limit government expansion, â€Å"You start with health-care workers but then expand that umbrella to make it mandatory for everybody. It’s all part of an encroachment on our liberties. †27 External Factors.Some influenza strains, like H1N1, pose greater risks than other strains and spread more rapidly, making vaccinations even more important. Medical employees already have to be inoculated for other conditions like mumps, measles, and tuberculosis, and there haven’t been widespread protests about these requirements. In addition, medical personnel have to follow such mandatory safety procedures as washing their hands before surgery. Vaccinations appear to be a safety measure like hand washing. However, past inoculation programs have made some medical professionals skeptical about current efforts.Earlier vaccines did make recipients sore and could cause mild flu-like sympto ms. The H1N1 vaccine seemed to be rushed into production, raising concerns that recipients were serving as â€Å"guinea pigs. † Nurses, doctors, and home health givers, like other Americans, are increasingly worried about substances they put in their bodies. Moral Duties or Loyalties. Professor Day borrows from theologian Ralph Potter for this part of his model. Potter believes we need to take into account important duties or loyalties when making ethical choices. 8 In this case, the following duties have to be kept in mind: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Loyalty to self (individual conscience) Loyalty to patients Loyalty to vulnerable populations Loyalty to fellow employees Loyalty to others in the same profession Loyalty to the public Medical officials seem primarily concerned for patients, vulnerable populations, and the larger community. Low vaccination rates threaten patients and clients and help the virus spread. Health care workers who refuse flu shots also damage the credibility of the medical profession. Why should patients be vaccinated if their doctors and nurses don’t think it is safe 54——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies or necessary to do so? Vaccination objectors are more concerned for their individual rights and, in some cases, their personal safety. They seem to overlook their primary duty, which is to serve their patients. Yet not all appear to be acting out of selfish motives. Some resistors are concerned about setting a precedent that could reduce the rights of their fellow citizens in the years to come. Moral Theories. Each of the ethical perspectives outlined in Chapter 5 can be applied to this dilemma.From a utilitarian perspective, the benefit of protecting personal rights has to be weighed against the dangers of spreading the flu virus. However, the immediate benefits of slowing the virus also need to be weighed against the long-term costs—loss of individual rights and govern ment intrusion. Based on Kant’s categorical imperative, we could ask if we would want everyone to be vaccinated (probably) or if we would want everyone to refuse to be vaccinated (probably not). However, employees who resist the mandatory shots should carry through on their decision regardless of the consequences, such as losing their jobs.Rawls’s theory could be applied to say that required vaccinations are justified because they protect the least advantaged members of society. Communitarianism also seems to support the mandatory vaccination position. Medical leaders put their emphasis on responsibility to patients, vulnerable groups, and the public. Objectors seem to emphasize individual rights rather than duties. Advocates of mandatory vaccinations have a stronger altruistic focus because such efforts are designed to reduce sickness and suffering. Opponents may argue, however, that they are demonstrating concern by protecting the rights of others.Decision Decisions often emerge out of careful definition and analysis of the problem. It may be clear which course of action is best after external constraints, principles, duties, and moral theories are identified and evaluated. In our example, mandatory flu vaccination programs for health care workers appear to be morally justified. Such programs put the needs of others first and reduce suffering and death. They seem consistent with other requirements placed on health care workers and support the patient-focused mission of the medical profession.Health care employees should prevent sickness, not spread it. This option also seems to be best supported by moral theory. Nonetheless, opponents of mandatory vaccination programs are right to point out that we should be cautious about requiring health CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——255 treatments. Just because mandatory influenza vaccinations are justified for health care workers does not mean that we should require all citi zens to be vaccinated (that’s a different question for analysis) or force citizens into other medical treatments. Balance SheetAdvantages (Pros) †¢ Encourages orderly, systematic reasoning †¢ Incorporates situation definition, duties, and moral theories Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Failure to reach consensus †¢ Limits creativity †¢ Ignores implementation The SAD formula does encourage careful reasoning by building in key elements of the critical thinking process. Following the formula keeps decision makers from reaching hasty decisions. Instead of jumping immediately to solutions, they must carefully identify elements of the situation, examine and evaluate ethical alternatives, and then reach a conclusion.Three elements of the SAD formula are particularly praiseworthy. First, the formula recognizes that the keys to solving a problem often lie in clearly identifying and describing it. Groups are far less likely to go astray when members clearly outline the question they are to answer. Second, Day’s formula highlights duties or loyalties. In the case of vaccinations, prioritizing loyalties is key to supporting or opposing mandatory vaccination programs. Third, the formula incorporates moral theories directly into the decisionmaking process. The strengths of the SAD model must be balanced against some troubling weaknesses.Day implies that a clear choice will emerge after the problem is defined and analyzed. Nevertheless, that may not always be the case. Even in our example, there is room for dispute. While it appears as if mandatory vaccinations are morally justified, those who put a high value on personal freedoms will likely remain unconvinced. They raise valid concerns about the long-term impact of such programs as well. Focusing on a narrowly defined question may exclude creative options and make it hard to apply principles from one decision to other settings. Finally, the formula leaves out the important implementation stage . 56——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Nash’s 12 Questions Ethics consultant Laura Nash offers 12 questions that can help businesses and other groups identify the responsibilities involved in making moral choices. 29 She argues that discussions based on these queries can be useful even if the group doesn’t reach a conclusion. Managers who answer the questions surface ethical concerns that might otherwise remain hidden, identify common moral problems, clarify gaps between stated values and performance, and explore a variety of alternatives. 1. Have you defined the problem accurately?The ethical decision-making process begins with assembling the facts. Determine how many employees will be affected by layoffs, how much the cleanup of toxic materials will cost, or how many people have been injured by faulty products. Finding out the facts can help defuse the emotionalism of some issues (perhaps the damage is not as great as first feared). 2. How wou ld you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence? Asking how others might feel forces self-examination. From a company’s point of view, expanding a local plant may make good sense by increasing production and efficiency.Government officials and neighbors might have an entirely different perspective. A larger plant means more workers clogging already overcrowded roads and contributing to urban sprawl. For example, considering the company’s point of view may impact the decision you reach in â€Å"Focus on Follower Ethics: Paying Back Microsoft† on page 258. 3. How did this situation occur in the first place? This question separates the symptoms from the disease. Lying, cheating customers, and strained labor relations are generally symptoms of deeper problems.Firing an employee for unethical behavior is a temporary solution. Probe to discover the underlying causes. For example, many dubious accounting practices are the result of pressure to pro duce high quarterly profits. 4. To whom and to what do you give your loyalties as a person or group and as a member of the organization? As we saw in Chapter 1, conflicts of loyalty are hard to sort through. However, wrestling with the problem of ultimate loyalty (Work group? Family? Self? Corporation? ) can clarify the values operating in an ethical dilemma. 5. What is your intention in making this decision? . How does this intention compare with the likely results? These questions probe both the group’s intentions and the likely products. Honorable motives CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——257 don’t guarantee positive results. Make sure that the outcomes reflect your motivations. 7. Whom could your decision or action injure? Too often groups consider possible injury only after being sued. Try, in advance, to determine harmful consequences. What will happen if customers ignore label warnings and spread your pesticide indiscriminately, for example?Will the guns you manufacture end up in the hands of urban gang members? Based on these determinations, you may decide to abandon your plans to make these items or revise the way they are marketed. 8. Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision? Talking to affected parties is one way to make sure that you understand how your actions will influence them. Few of us would want other people to decide what’s in our best interest. Yet we often push forward with projects that assume we know what’s in the best interests of others. 9.Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now? Make sure that your choice will stand the test of time. What seem like compelling reasons for a decision may not seem so important months or years later. Consider the U. S. decision to invade Iraq, for instance. American intelligence experts and political leaders tied Saddam Hussein to terror ist groups and claimed that he was hiding weapons of mass destruction. After the invasion, no solid links between Iraqis and international terrorists or weapons of mass destruction were discovered.Our decision to wage this war doesn’t appear as justified now as it did in the months leading up to the conflict. 10. Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, or society as a whole? No ethical decision is too trivial to escape the disclosure test. If you or your group would not want to disclose this action, then you’d better reevaluate your choice. 11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? Misunderstood? What you intend may not be what the public perceives (see Questions 5 and 6).If your company is a notorious polluter, contributions to local arts groups may be seen as an attempt to divert attention from your firm’s poor environmental record, not as a generous civic gest ure. 12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand? Moral consistency is critical, but is there any basis for making an exception? Dorm rules might require that visiting hours end at midnight on weekdays. Yet, as a resident assistant, is there any time when you would be willing to overlook violations? During finals week? On the evening before classes start?When dorm residents and visitors are working on class projects? 258——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Highlights the importance of gathering facts †¢ Encourages perspective taking †¢ Forecasts results and consequences over time Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Is extremely time consuming †¢ May not always reach a conclusion †¢ Ignores implementation Like the ethical checkpoints, the 12 questions highlight the importance of problem identification and information gathering. They go a step further, however, by encouraging us to engage in perspective taking.We need to see the problem from the other party’s point of view, consider the possible injury we might cause, invite others to give us feedback, and consider how our actions will be perceived. We also need to envision results and take a longterm perspective, imagining how our decisions will stand the test of time. Stepping back can keep us from making choices we might regret later. For example, the decision to test nuclear weapons on U. S. soil without warning citizens may have seemed justified to officials waging the Cold War. However, now even the federal government admits that these tests were immoral. NW E FOCUS ON FOLLOWER ETHICS PAYING BACK MICROSOFT? S Software giant Microsoft made an embarrassing error when it engaged in the first widespread layoffs in the firm’s history. Company officials overpaid an average of $4,000–$5,000 to 25 out of the first 1,400 workers it furloughed. After discovering the error, the firm sent a letter ask ing for repayment from the 25 laid-off workers, requesting a check or money order and apologizing for the inconvenience. Contents of the letter soon appeared on the Internet and in the national media. Microsoft officials then backed off their attempts to get the money back.According to a company spokesperson, â€Å"This was a mistake on our part. We should have handled this situation in a more thoughtful manner. We are reaching out to those impacted to relay that we will not seek any payment from CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——259 those individuals. †1 While Microsoft decided to drop the matter because of negative publicity, the fact remains that some employees received more than they were promised. Except for a clerical error, the company did nothing wrong and has a legal right to ask for restitution.One outplacement expert noted that just because Microsoft is a large company doesn’t mean it should have to automatically pay the cost for this mistake. â€Å"What if they’d put an extra three zeros on it? † he wondered. â€Å"Of course they’d expect to get it back. †2 If you were one of the laid-off workers overpaid by Microsoft, would you give the money back? Why or why not? Would your response be different if the amount of the overpayment was much bigger and the company much smaller? Notes 1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. 2. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. Sources Chan, S. P. 2009, May 6). Microsoft may not be done cutting jobs. The Seattle Times, p. A1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. I suspect that some groups will be frustrated by the amount of time it takes to answer the 12 questions. Not only is the model detailed, but discussing the problem with affected parties could take a series of meetings over a period of weeks and months. Complex issues such as determining who should clean up riv er pollution involve a variety of constituencies with very different agendas (government agencies, company representatives, citizens’ groups, conservation clubs).Some decision makers may also be put off by the model’s ambiguity. Nash admits that experts may define problems differently, that there may be exceptions to the decision, and that groups may use the procedure and never reach a conclusion. Finally, none of the questions use the ethical standards we identified in Chapter 5 or address the problem of implementing the choice once it is made. The Case Study Method The case study method is widely used for making medical diagnoses. At many hospitals, groups made up of doctors, nurses, and other staff members 260——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies eet regularly to talk about particularly troublesome cases. They may be unable to determine the exact nature of the illness or how to best treat a patient. Many of these deliberations involve ethical is sues such as whether to keep a terminally ill person on life support or how to respond to patients who demand unnecessary tests and procedures. The group solicits a variety of viewpoints and gathers as much information as possible. Members engage in analogical reasoning, comparing the specifics of a particular case with similar cases by describing the patient, her illness, and relationships with her family.Instead of focusing on how universal principles and standards can be applied in this situation, hospital personnel are more concerned with the details of the case itself. Participants balance competing perspectives and values, reach tentative conclusions, and look for similarities between the current case and earlier ones. Medical ethicist and communication scholar David H. Smith argues that the case-based approach is a powerful technique because it is based on narrative or story. 30 When decision makers describe cases, they are telling stories.These narratives say as much about t he storyteller as they do about the reality of the case. â€Å"Facts† are not objective truth but rather are reflections of what the narrator thinks is true and important. Stories knit these perceptions into a coherent whole. When discussing the fate of patients, it is not enough to know medical data. Hospital personnel need to learn about the patient’s history, the costs and benefits of various treatment options, and other factors such as the wishes of relatives and legal issu